About Lithium-ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries offer transformative benefits for modern industries. These batteries are known for their high energy density, relative light weight, and excellent performance. Their compact size and fast charging capabilities make lithium batteries well-suited to specific applications.

Lithium-ion Battery Snapshot

Lithium-ion batteries can be comprised of a single cell (i.e., a pouch cell), a single module (i.e., a series of cells connected in series and parallel), or many modules. For example, in total, an EV battery may contain anywhere from a few hundred to several thousand lithium-ion cells.

There are three different constructions of lithium-ion cells:

  • Cylindrical: These cells are tube-like in shape, where the positive and negative electrodes, separator, and electrolyte are all contained within a metal casing. The most common format is the 18650 (18mm diameter, 65mm length).
  • Pouch (polymer): These cells are generally made by laminating flat electrodes and separators, then sealing them in a flexible, heat-sealed pouch or bag made of a flexible material, often aluminum or other polymers.
  • Prismatic: This cell type is characterized by its rectangular or square shape. Prismatic cells have a flat (and often stackable) design. The electrode materials are typically arranged in layers, and the cell is enclosed in a sturdy metal casing.
Electric lawn mower powered by a lithium battery.

Lithium-ion Battery Applications

Various industries rely on lithium-ion batteries for demanding applications and intensive operations, including:

  • Motive Power Market: Providing the power needed for electric material handling and ground handling equipment, mainly electric forklift, lift trucks and pallet jacks.
  • Data Centers: Providing the Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) system to ensure that critical hardware and systems that protect data remain operational when the main power source fails.
  • Golf and Power Sports: Providing efficient and durable energy solutions for golf carts, recreational sports and maintenance vehicles, like lawn mowers.
  • Electric Vehicles:  Providing motive power (“traction”) for electric vehicle drive-trains.
  • Outdoor Power Equipment: the light weight of lithium-ion batteries makes them a prime option for use in equipment such as, aerators, blowers, chain saws, hedge trimmers, lawn mowers, and snowblowers.

Key Benefits of Lithium-ion Batteries

While the initial investment in lithium-ion batteries can be much greater than other battery technologies, their performance benefits are highly desirable:

  • High Energy Density: Ideal for applications where compact, lightweight power is critical, like in cell phones and mobile applications. Lithium-ion technology can provide over three times the energy density on a weight basis of traditional rechargeable batteries
  • Fast Charging: Minimizes downtime for recharging and can help maximize productivity in certain applications. Lithium-ion batteries can charge quickly, reaching 100% capacity in a short amount of time.
  • Reduced Maintenance: Reduces upkeep costs, compared to other battery technologies.
Lithium-ion battery pack module with a Battery Management System (BMS).

Lithium-ion Requires a Battery Management System

Lithium-ion batteries typically require battery management systems to properly control charging and discharging profiles, as well as operating temperatures. Ensuring the proper management of a lithium battery is key to prolonging its life and improving its performance.

Most lithium-ion batteries are required to have a dedicated Battery Management System (BMS) that can:

  • Monitor voltage, temperature and charge levels.
  • Optimize battery safety, runtime and cycle life.
  • Ensure complete control over the battery system.
  • Safely isolate the battery in the event of a detected fault.

How a Lithium-ion Battery Is Made

Lithium-ion batteries normally use carbon or silicon anodes or a lithium titanate variation. There is no single chemistry lithium-ion battery. Whereas the lead-acid battery consists of 55–60% lead and no other metals in a significant level, the lithium battery contains less than 20% lithium. Copper, aluminum and graphite make up a large percentage of the battery content.

Lithium-ion battery diagram.
Lithium-ion cylindrical cell battery example.

How a Lithium-ion Battery Works

Lithium-ion batteries are sealed, rechargeable batteries that use various cathode and anode materials, arranged in layers with a separator.

Lithium ions serve as the primary ionic conductor within an organic electrolyte.

Types of Lithium-ion Batteries

There are six main types of lithium-ion batteries, each with distinct characteristics suited to different applications.

Table showing the types of lithium-ion batteries.

Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP)

Known for long cycle life and high power density. Safer and more cost-effective than older lithium-ion chemistries, though still containing a combustible electrolyte. Commonly used in electric vehicles, grid energy storage, and portable power tools.

Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO)

The original lithium-ion battery with moderate energy density and lifespan but lower thermal stability. Widely used in smartphones, laptops, and tablets.

Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA)

Offers high energy density and power, making it ideal for electric vehicles and some electronics.

Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO)

Features higher voltage, thermal stability, and environmental safety compared to cobalt-based cathodes, though with lower energy density. Found in power tools and medical devices.

Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC)

Balances high energy density and specific power, making it a top choice for electric vehicles, energy storage systems, and heavy-duty equipment.

Lithium Titanate (LTO)

Delivers high power density and extended cycle life over a wide temperature range. Ideal for niche applications due to lower energy density and higher costs. Used in specialized commercial applications.

How to Recycle a Lithium-ion Battery

The battery industry has a long history of supporting circularity for raw materials, including a 99% recycling rate for lead batteries. Research to improve lithium-ion’s sustainability are underway, and recycling facilities are a critical part of the supply chain for lithium and related battery metals.

Lithium-ion batteries and devices containing these batteries should not go in standard garbage or commercial recycling bins. Nor can they be disposed of at traditional car battery recyclers.

Most lithium-ion batteries on the market are likely to be classified hazardous waste and must be taken to separate recycling or household hazardous waste collection points to protect our environment, recover precious metals, and reduce the carbon footprint of manufacturing new batteries when possible.

Lithium-ion batteries contain essential materials like lithium, nickel, and cobalt, which recyclers aim to recover and reuse in future batteries. Recycling these batteries is possible, but it poses a significant challenge that demands innovation and sustainable solutions. The technologies and systems required to do so efficiently are growing, though as of 2024, it is estimated that only a small percentage of end-of-life lithium-ion batteries are recycled today.

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The lead acid battery ... is legendary. We can recycle 95+ percent of [these] batteries all across the world. It's a very safe chemistry, ... [and] we understand how to use it very, very well.

Dr. Venkat Srinivasan, Director, Argonne Collaborative Center for Energy Storage Science